Clark Barrow

Paul Stewart

 

1. Introduction
2. Readability Levels and Formulas
3. Gunning 'FOG' Readability Test
4. Fry Readability Graph
1. Fry Graph for Estimating Reading Ages (in years)
2. Fry Graph for Estimating Reading Ages (grade level)
5. Powers-Sumner-Kearl Formula
6. Mclaughlin 'SMOG' Formula
7. Flesch-Kincaid Formula
8. Conclusion

 

 

 

 

Introduction

 

The United States first developed readability formulas in the 1920s and this has expanded today to several mathematical formulas that accurately measure text according to specific criteria. Readability formulas help determine how difficult textbooks are to read based on the complexity of word and sentence structure (Johnson, 2003). However, not all parts of texts’ readability are mathematically measurable. Readability tests do not measure a reader’s background knowledge (Johnson; Kinder & Bursuck, 1993) or elucidate whether the texts are interesting, well written, well organized, or appropriate for the reader (Johnson).

 

There is a need for basic readability research and for an easily applied and accurate new readability formula. Two steps taken toward the development of such a formula are the revision of a Vocabulary list for primary grades and the combination of reading exercises given at different grade levels into a single scale of ascending difficulty. Much recent readability research seems to rework old topics while ignoring current areas of needed research. In 1852, Herbert Spencer anticipated readability discussions in an article that emphasized economizing the reader's attention, anticipated syntactic and semantic readability features, and suggested four variables now considered in devising readability formulas: syllable length, word familiarity, word abstractness, and sentence length. Recent developments have facilitated the use of these variables in readability.

 

The U. S. Department of Education continues to interview and mandated mandate in the No Child Left Behind law for schools to close the achievement gaps among students by offering more flexibility and giving parents additional options to education (U. S. Department of Education, 2007). Therefore, it is critical for teachers to close the reading gaps among students by implementing best practices reading strategies. The purpose of this paper is to explore methods of determining (a) the readability of texts and (b) the layout of text on paper. Knowledge of both concerns is beneficial in improving the reading scores of students. Here are two sample papers containing 455 words each. Which one do you think a young reader would prefer to read?

 

Paper with standard text layout.

Paper with interesting text layout.

 

Readability Levels and Formulas

 

Teachers need to know the reading abilities of their students and monitor the "types and difficulty of texts read" (Gillet, Temple, & Crawford, 2004, p. 66). Gillet et al. continue by stating that teachers should keep logs of their students’ readings, encourage proficient readers to read challenging texts, and provide challenged readers with materials that properly match their ability to read. Over the past decades, several initiatives evolved that tried to associate reading comprehension scores with Reading Levels of Books (Pearson & Hamm, 2004, p. 50). In this light, Pearson and Hamm contend that the "Degrees of Reading Power" and Lexile scales (p. 50) provide this sort of linking service.

 

Gunning 'FOG' Readability Test

 

Select samples of 100 words, normally three such samples.

(i) Calculate L, the average sentence length (number of words ÷ number of sentences). Estimate the number of sentences to the nearest tenth, where necessary.

(ii) In each sample, count the number of words with 3 or more syllables.

Find N, the average number of these words per sample.

Then the grade level needed to understand the material = (L + N) × 0.4

So the Reading Age = [ (L + N) × 0.4 ] + 5 years.

This 'FOG' measure is suitable for secondary and older primary age groups.

Fry Readability Graphs

 

Select samples of 100 words.

(i) Find y, the average number of sentences per 100-word passage (calculating to the nearest tenth).

(ii) Find x, the average number of syllables per 100-word sample.

Then use the Fry graph (below) to determine the reading age, in years.

This test is suitable for all ages, from infant to upper secondary.

The curve represents normal texts. Points below the curve imply longer than average sentence lengths. Points above the curve represent text with a more difficult vocabulary (as in school science texts).

 

 

 

The Fry Readability Graph below gives the reading level by grade level.

 

 

Powers-Sumner-Kearl Formula

 

This is the only one of the formulae suitable for primary age books.

Select samples of 100 words.

(i) Calculate L, the average sentence length (number of words ÷ number of sentences). Estimate the number of sentences to the nearest tenth, where necessary.

(ii) Count N, the number of syllables per 100 words.

Then grade level = ( L × 0.0778 ) + ( N × 0.0455 ) - 2.2029

So Reading Age = ( L × 0.0778 ) + ( N × 0.0455 ) + 2.7971 years.

This test is NOT suitable for secondary age books, and is most suitable for material in the 7 - 10 age range.

Mclaughlin 'SMOG' Formula

 

Select samples of 30 consecutive sentences.

In each sample, count the number of words with 3 or more syllables.

Find the average number, N.

Then grade level = (square root of N) + 3.

Reading Age = (square root of N) + 8 years.

This test tends to give higher values than the other formula, because Mclaughlin intended it to predict the level necessary for 100% comprehension of the text (whatever that means), whereas other tests were validated against lower comprehension levels.

 

Here are some examples using the Mclaughlin SMOG Formula:

 

SMOG Grade	Educational Level	Example
0 - 6	low-literate	Soap Opera Weekly
7	junior high school	True Confessions
8	junior high school	Ladies Home Journal
9	some high school	Reader's Digest
10	some high school	Newsweek
11	some high school	Sports Illustrated
12	high school graduate	Time Magazine
13 - 15	some college	New York Times
16	university degree	Atlantic Monthly
17 - 18	post-graduate studies	Harvard Business Review
19+	post-graduate degree	IRS Code

 

Source: McLaughlin, G. H. (1969). SMOG grading: A new readability formula. Journal of Reading, 12(8), 639-646.

 

 

Flesch-Kincaid Formula

 

This is a US Government Department of Defense standard test 16.

(i) Calculate L, the average sentence length (number of words ÷ number of sentences). Estimate the number of sentences to the nearest tenth, where necessary.

(ii) Calculate N, the average number of syllables per word (number of syllables ÷ number of words).

Then grade level = ( L × 0.39 ) + ( N × 11.8 ) - 15.59

So Reading Age = ( L × 0.39 ) + ( N × 11.8 ) - 10.59 years.

 

In an attempt to calibrate some fixed points on the scale of readability, the averages of four tests (Fry, Gunning, Flesch-Kincaid, Forcast) were found for some items of general literature.

 

‘A Tale of Two Cities’ (Dickens) age 13

‘To Kill a Mocking Bird’ (Lee) age 11 1/2

‘Lord of the Flies’ (Golding) age 11

‘Kes: A Kestrel for a Knave’ (Hines) age 10 1/2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Conclusion

 

Readability involves calculating sentence length, syllables per sentence, and sentences per passage. In addition, it involves the reader’s background knowledge, page layout, and whether or not the text is interesting. Different methods exist to calculate the difficulty of reading based on the numeric of text structure. However, these readability formulas do not take into account the other variables just mentioned.

 

Future research should be devoted to the relationship of readability to cognitive and affective variables, orthographics, graphics design, and developmental reading. The development of vocabulary skills should be considered in conjunction with the development of skills involving decoding, syntactic patterns, and inferencing; lists should be developed that show the developmental sequence of these skills in major reading series. Research has been conducted that can serve as the basis for such work (Harris & Jacobson, 1978).

 

References

 

Gillet, J. W., Temple, C., & Crawford, A. N. (2004). Understanding reading problems: Assessment and instruction (6th ed). Boston: Pearson and Allyn and Bacon.

 

Harris, A. J., & Jacobson, M. D. (1978, May). A Framework for Readability Research. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Reading Association, Houston, TX.

 

Johnson, D. (2003, September). Choosing the Right Books for Struggling Readers. Learning & Leading with Technology, 31, 22+.

 

Kinder, D. & Bursuck, W. (1993). History strategy instruction: Problem-solution-effect analysis, timeline, and vocabulary instruction. Exceptional Children, 59(4), 324+.

 

Mclaughlin, G. H. (1969). SMOG grading: A new readability formula. Journal of Reading, 12(8), 639-646.

 

Pearson, P. D., & Hamm, D. N. (2004). 2 The assessment of reading comprehension: A review of practices—past, present, and future1. In S. G. Paris & S. A. Stahl (Eds.), Current Issues in Reading Comprehension and Assessment, (pp. 13-63). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

 

U. S. Department of Education (2007). Stronger accountability. Retrieved February 25, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/nclb/accountability/index.html?src=ov

---

 

External Links

 

http://www.ed.gov/teachers/how/read/edpicks.jhtml U. S. Department of Education’s page for reading resources for teachers. Page title: “Improve Student Performance: Reading”

 

http://www.edu-cyberpg.com/Literacy/readability.asp Educational Cyber PlayGround. This site is titled “Reading Assessment and Readability Tests and Tools” and includes the ability for one to check the readability of texts, websites, and HTML documents. There are also links to information on the Gunning-Fog index, Flesch Reading Ease, and Flesch-Kincaid grade level.

 

http://school.discovery.com/schrockguide/fry/fry.html Discovery Education. This site has links for teachers to use Fry’s readability graph to estimate a student’s reading age. The graphs are printable.

 

http://www.online-utility.org/english/readability_test_and_improve.jsp This page has a place to paste text. The program will then process the text and show statistics including number of words and sentences, Gunning Fox index, Coleman Liau index, Flesch Kincaid Grade level, ARI (Automated Readability Index), SMOG, and Flesch Reading Ease.

 

The Lexile Framework for Reading

 

Information on: The Fog Index and Readability Formula

 

This is a PDF file on: The SMOG Readability Formula

 

This is a: SMOG Reading Level Calculator Paste your text here and it will analyze it for you.

 

---