Paul Stewart
Outline
Definition of Orthography
Introduction
Brief History
Three "ordering" principles of English spelling
Stages
Summary
Definition of Orthography
1. The art of writing words with the proper letters, according to accepted usage; correct spelling.
2. The part of language study concerned with letters and spelling.
3. A method of spelling, as by the use of an alphabet or other system of symbols; spelling.
4. A system of such symbols: Missionaries provided the first orthography for the language.
5. An orthographic projection, or an elevation drawn by means of it.
Definiton of Orthgraphy
Orthography includes the writing system of a language. English for example, has an alphabet of 26 letters for both consonants and vowels. However, each English letter may represent more than one sound, and each English sound (phoneme) may be written by more than one letter. An example of an orthographic rule describing how letters are used is i before e except after c; another is that the plural is written with the letter s regardless of whether it is pronounced as an {s}, as in cats, or as a {z}, as in dogs. In addition, combinations of letters called digraphs, such as th, represent single sounds in English orthography. Other languages, which use the same alphabet as English, may not use the same digraphs.
Introduction
Literacy is like a braid of interwoven threads. The braid begins with the intertwining threads of oral language and stories. As children experiment with putting ideas on paper, a writing thread is intertwined as well. As children move into reading, the threads of literacy begin to bond. Students' growing knowledge of spelling or orthography--the correct sequences of letters in the writing system--strengthens that bonding. The size of the threads and the braid itself become thicker as orthographic knowledge grows. During the primary years word knowledge is fundamentally aural. From the oral language that surrounds them (e.g., world experiences and stories), children develop a rich Speaking Vocabulary. As children observe parents, siblings, and caregivers writing for many purposes, they begin to experiment with pen and paper, gradually coming to understand the forms and functions of written language (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, Johnston, 2004).
Brief History Wikipedia
The regular spelling system of Old English was swept away by the Norman Conquest, and English itself was eclipsed by French for three centuries, eventually emerging with its spelling much influenced by French. English had also borrowed large numbers of words from French, which for reasons of prestige and familiarity kept their French spellings. The spelling of Middle English, such as in the writings of Geoffrey Chaucer, is very irregular and inconsistent, with the same word being spelled differently, sometimes even in the same sentence. However, these were generally much better guides to pronunciation than modern English spelling can honestly claim. By the time dictionaries were introduced in the mid 1600s, the spelling system of English started to stabilize, and by the 1800s, most words had set spellings.
Three "ordering" principles of English spelling
There are three "ordering" principles in the spelling system of English: alphabetic, with-in word pattern, and meaning (Henderson, 1984).
English spelling is alphabetic in that letters match sounds in a more or less orderly way from left to right. This is the level on which most speakers of English tend to think about the spelling system, and it is the variability of this letter-sound matching that is thought to be so daunting for young learners. A good example of this problem is the set of letter-sound correspondences represented by the Consonant Digraph gh in the words "ghost," "high," and "rough." Although Old English was spelled more consistently at the alphabetic level than English si is today, the cumulative effects of foreign language borrowing, sound change, and the attempts to standardize spelling have moved it farther away from this primary level. The logic according to which letters are sequenced in Modern English becomes apparent only when the next two ordering principles are considered(Henderson & Templeton 1986).
English spelling is alphabetic in that letters match sounds in a more or less orderly way from left to right. This is the level on which most speakers of English tend to think about the spelling system, and it is the variability of this letter-sound matching that is thought to be so daunting for young learners. A good example of this problem is the set of letter-sound correspondences represented by the Consonant Digraph gh in the words "ghost," "high," and "rough." Although Old English was spelled more consistently at the alphabetic level than English is today, the cumulative effects of foreign language borrowing, sound change, and the attempts to standardize spelling have moved it farther away from this primary level. The logic according to which letters are sequenced in Modern English becomes apparent only when the next two ordering principles are considered(Henderson & Templeton 1986).
The with-in word pattern principle illustrates why the consonant digrah gh can represent more than one sound. The sound a letter or letters represent within a syllable depends on position and on the other letters tht surround it. A more common example is the Long Vowel Pattern signaled by a final e as in "fate"; children learn this pattern early, and it works will enough even though there are exceptions. The sound that a represents in this pattern depends on its environment, that is, the following single consonant and the final e. There are therefore patterns in English spelling, and although these letter units in particular sequences vary considerably, they are predictable(Henderson & Templeton 1986).
The with-in word pattern principle illustrates why the consonant digrah gh can represent more than one sound. The sound a letter or letters represent within a syllable depends on position and on the other letters that surround it. A more common example is the Long Vowel Pattern signaled by a final e as in "fate"; children learn this pattern early, and it works well enough even though there are exceptions. The sound that a represents in this pattern depends on its environment, that is, the following single consonant and the final e. There are therefore patterns in English spelling, and although these letter units in particular sequences vary considerably, they are predictable(Henderson & Templeton 1986).
The third ordering principle in English spelling, meaning, is revealed by the fact that words or parts of words having the same or similar meaning tend to be spelled the same. For example, the spoken word /met/ when used to refer to a type of food is not spelled meat one time and meet or mete on other occasions. When it is used in this particular way-in reference to meat counters, meat eaters, raw meat and so forth-it will always be spelled meat; the meaning fixes this particular spelling. When /met/ is used to refer to two or more individuals getting together, it will always be spelled meet; there is no question that the written phrase "going to a meating" is incorrect (Henderson & Templeton 1986).
The proficient reader/writer may call upon any or all of these types of information when puzzling over a spelling. For example, if uncertain whether alledge or allege is the correct spelling, an individual could try to recall the different conditions that govern the spelling of the /j/ sound in stressed syllables in polysyllabic words -- or the individual could try the more economical and productive strategy of thinking of a word that is related in spelling and meaning, perhaps coming up with allegation. Because the spelling of this word is known -- and because words that are related in meaning are often related in spelling as well -- the g in allegation is the clue that solves the riddle of how to spell the /j/ sound in allege (Templeton & Morris 2001).
The basic unit of spelling is, is of course the word --Concept of Word--. Nonetheless, many children attempt to write before they understand this crucial concept. Accordingly, in order for learners to master English spelling they must begin with a preliterate period, which is the first of five stages of spelling.
Stages Spelling Stages
Stage I: Emergent Spelling Emergent Stage
Stage II: Letter Name-Alphabetic Spelling Letter Name Stage
Stage III: Within-Word Pattern Spelling Within-Word Patterns
Stage IV: Syllables and Affixes Spelling Syllables and Affixes
Stage V: Derivational Relations Spelling Derivational Relations
Summary
Knowledge of English spelling begins with the discovery of "word" and the application of the alphabetic principle of letter-sound representation. As educators we need to be aware that students contribute actively to their own learning. Accordingly, we need to provide them with numerous and frequent opportunities to explore English spelling in the daily context of daily writing and reading activities.
One might ask, however, whether in the age of computer spellcheckers we should even be concerned. Herein lies the essence of the broader conception of the role of spelling knowledge: It is more than a specific skill for writing. Arguably, the type of word knowledge that allows individuals to make the link between allegation and allege also plays a consequential role during the reading process and in the continuing development of vocabulary knowledge (Templeton & Morris 2001). Knowledge of English spelling begins with the discovery of "word" and the application of the alphabetic principle of letter-sound representation. As educators we need to be aware that students contribute actively to their own learning. Accordingly, we need to provide them with numerous and frequent opportunities to explore English spelling in the daily context of daily writing and reading activities.
References
Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2004). Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction (3rd ed.). Upper Saddler River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Henderson, E. (1984). Teaching children to spell English. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Henderson, E., & Templeton, S. (1986). A Developmental Perspective of Formal Spelling Instruction through Alphabet, Pattern, and Meaning. The Elementary School Journal, 86, 304-316.
Kamil, M.L., Mosenthal, P.B., Pearson, P.D., & Barr, R. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of reading research: Volume III. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Templeton, S., & Morris, D. (2001, October). Reconceptualizing spelling development and instruction. Reading Online, 5(3).
External Links
International Reading Association
National Literacy Strategy- United Kingdom (1997)
Language, Orthography, and the Schwa
The Construction of Away Messages:A Speech Act Analysis
A series of articles discussing the uniqueness of the Southern language.
Commentary by Caryn Bell
This article provides a very thorough understanding on the origins of Orthography. In addition, the links are superb. In fact, I was thankful for the opportunity to provide commentary on your article because I had already read it and found much of the information to be pertinent to my own WIKI article. You do a good job of explaining orthogrpahy as a braid. You also define the spelling stages in an efficient manner. The only suggestion might be reducing some of the extraneous details such as the ordering of principles within the article and expanding the summary just a bit.
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Commentary by Deborah Louie
Really great reading Paul! I found it very concise and understandable. Just a few comments.
In the fourth paragraph that begins: "English spelling is alphabetic...." there appears to be an extra two letters in the sentence (midway through) that begins, "Although Old English was spelled more consistently...". After the word "English si- is". The -si should not be there.
In the next paragraph, second sentence, "tht" should be "that".
In the third sentence of that same paragraph, "will" should be "well".
I found your seventh paragraph (it begins: "The proficient reader/writer...") interesting as it speaks about advanced readers, which we, as students of struggling readers for the most part, do not discuss a great deal. We all want our students to become advanced but do not often see the results of all our hard work. This paragraph speaks about how an advanced reader would figure out the correct spelling of a challenging word.
Commentary by Carolyn Morin
Paul, you did a great job explaining Orthography. This paper was very interesting. Your reference and external links were great! The only suggestions is to work on the summary.
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