Fluency

Independent Reading

 

Crystal Wise

June Kent

Vanessa Avis

 

Outline

Introduction

Definitions of Fluency

Reasons for Dysfluency

Predictors of Fluency

How Fluency is Measured

Levels of Fluency

Grade Level Fluency Expectations

Instructional and Intervention Strategies

Conclusion

References

External Links

 

Introduction

Historically, fluency has come in and out of prominence as a key component of reading. The most recent resurgence is due to the National Reading Panel’s report identifying fluency as one of the evidence-based pillars of scientific reading (Allington, 2006). Since this report was published teachers have been inundated with instructional methods, evaluation procedures, and assessments, all claiming substantial increases in fluency.

It has long been agreed that the ultimate goal of reading is Comprehension, or the understanding of text that is read orally or silently. Yet, a strong debate exists as to whether or not fluency is a precursor to comprehension. Some reports indicate that fluency is a building block to comprehension and must exist before comprehension can occur. Some reports indicate that reading rate, accuracy, and automaticity of word calling makes reading easier and allows the reader to focus on and the brain to process the more complex tasks associated with comprehension. However, other studies indicate that these previously mentioned tasks are not necessary for comprehension to occur and that fluency may develop independently with opportunities of wide reading rather than being supported by instruction. To date there are still many unanswered questions regarding fluency, including methods of measurement, assessment, and methods and necessity of instruction. So this question remains unanswered, is there a true correlation between fluency and comprehension?

Definitions of Fluency

 

One difficulty with fluency lies in its definition. The National Reading Panel defined fluency as “the ability to read text quickly, accurately, and with proper expression”. Pikulski and Chard argue that this omits the key factor in reading, which is comprehension. They redefine fluency as “a developmental process that refers to efficient, effective decoding skills that permit the reader to comprehend text. There is a reciprocal relationship between decoding and comprehension. Fluency is manifested in accurate, rapid, expressive oral reading and is applied during, and makes possible, silent-reading comprehension”(Samuels & Farstrup, 2005).

 

How Fluency is Measured

 

Typically fluency is measured by administering individually timed tests in which the student is asked to either read out loud through a list of words or continuous text.The goal of these assessments is to read quickly and accurately. The resulting scores are most often reported by reading rate (words read per minute) and/or accuracy (Correct words per minute), or Prosody(expression). This information alone yields little quality information about the reader.

 

Levels of Fluency

 

Levels of Fluency	Characteristics	Sub-skills
Surface Fluency	Speed of accurate and automatic word recognition	• Phonological decoding (auditory) • Sight word recognition • Prediction from context • Prediction from grammatical structure
Strategic Fluency	Control of reading speed to yield comprehension and appropriate expression	• Balance between meaning abstraction and speed regulation appropriate for the purpose of reading • Comprehension • Responds to audience demands for expression • Varies phrasing, pitch, tone, rhythm, loudness, speed, pauses
Deep Fluency	Control of reading speed to yield maximum comprehension and deep reflection	• All of the above • Reflection for specific purpose • Self-regulation of process • metacognition

 

 

 

 

 

Reasons for Dysfluency

 

Some researchers believe that fluency is a developmental process that connects decoding with everything we know about words in order to make meaning from text read orally or silently. Fluency is a bridge to comprehension and to a life long love of reading.

 

The most common reason for not being a fluent reader is that the child lacks automatic decoding skills and this prevents him or her from being able to read accurately, much less smoothly and quickly. Decoding accuracy is the first prerequisite to fluency. It is important to understand what is impeding the child from acquiring the letter-sound rules that underlie decoding. (Wolf, M. 2007)

 

A second reason why some children do not acquire early decoding skills is because they have weaknesses in phoneme awareness. They are not aware of the phonemes that make up words in speech.

 

A third reason may be that the student's decoding skills are accurate but not emerging. These children need a great deal of practice. Some of these students may include second language learners. For these children, the best resource for a teacher or parent is to supply the child with every opportunity to practice.

 

A fourth reason why some children don't become fluent readers is that their reading is slow and laborious, resulting in poor comprehension skills. Until recently, most teachers assumed that with just a little more time, this skill would eventually develop and fluency would occur. Indeed for some children that's true. But a good chunk of struggling readers have a difference in the rate they process written language. For them, quite literally the areas in the brain that put together visual and verbal processes don't work together as automatically. The good news is that we can predict who these children are as early as kindergarten.(Wolf, M. 2007)

 

Predictors of Fluency

 

Kindergarten teachers may use assessments to predict fluency that include 1) phoneme awareness tasks; 2) a set of rapid automatized naming tests or naming speed tests (for letters, numbers, colors, objects); and 3) a vocabulary test. The phoneme awareness tasks can indicate to the teacher the children that need extra help in discriminating sounds aurally and learning to manipulate the phonemes in our language.

 

Vocabulary tests are also helpful at every stage of reading. Vocabulary tests inform teachers how familiar the child is with the meaning of many of the words he or she will encounter in oral and written language. This is information is critical in figuring out what are the sources of weakness that will lead to accuracy and fluency problems. (Wolf, M. 2007)

Grade Level Fluency Expectations

 

Kindergarten children should be able to name letters quickly and accurately by the end of the year.

 

By the end of first grade children should be able to read one-syllable words at about 40 words per minute.

 

In second grade, children should read aloud with expression and prosody (the fluency phrase). They should read about 90 words per minute.

 

In third grade, children should be able to read about 110 words per minute. Children who are not fluent comprehending readers at the end of Grade 3 are candidates for a cycle of future learning failure.

 

In fourth grade, reading requirements increase exponentially. One of the most critical insights in fluency research is the urgency to help all our children become fluent, comprehending readers by Grade 3. (Wolf, M. 2007)

 

Instructional and Intervention Strategies

 

Fluency instruction is part of a comprehensive reading program that emphasizes both research-based practices and reading for meaning. There is a difference between beginning and fluent readers. Beginning readers cannot simultaneously decode and comprehend a text. Fluent readers can do both tasks at the same time.(Hudson,2005). Researchers agree that one of the major differences between poor and good readers is the difference in the quantity of total time they have spent reading.

 

The general principles for developing fluency are: link the meaning of the word; to provide guidance and feedback; encourage wide reading of meaningful and enjoyable text; consider the student's reading levels; avoid unpracticed reading.(Caldwell,2005).

 

The following are some instruction strategies that are research proven:

 

Easy Reading: Read using "easy" materials - in stories containing words and sentence patterns that are familiar to the child. This should be pressure free. The goal is to increase fluency by having the child experience comfortable, relatively error free readings of meaningful stories. use of trade books, such as I Can Read Books,(Harper & Row), and Step Into Reading,(Levels 1 and 20, Random House).(Morris,2005).

Echo Reading: The teacher reads aloud one or two sentences and the child attempts to "echo" the teacher's reading.(Morris,2005).

Choral Reading: Single group of students read the same text together, or groups of students read different texts together.(Caldwell,2005).

Paired Reading: A less fluent reader is partnered with a more fluent reader.(Rasinski,2003).

Partner Reading: Students read orally to each other.

Repeated Readings: Students would reread a short meaningful passage several times until a satisfactory level of fluency was reached.(Samuels,2002)

Reader's Theater: This activity makes reading come alive for the students; helps build oral fluency, strengthens reading and language arts skills; promotes teamwork; helps develop confidence in students. Reader's Theater meets the individual needs of struggling readers, students acquiring English, and accelerated learners.(Cheney,2003). An excellent resource for scripts presented at different reading grade levels is published by Evan-Moore, Readers' Theater. Students may also write their own script.(Allington,2001)

Taped Readings: The teacher selects a story written at the student's instructional level, and records it on a cassette tape. The child then can practice reading along with the tape.(Morris,2005).

Sustained Silent Readings,(SSR): This is a time for students to practice independent reading. SSR needs to be purposeful and focused.(Kelley,2006).

 

 

 

 

Conclusion

 

In conclusion, fluency is sometimes referred to as the building block to comprehension and must exist before comprehension can occur. Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, accurately, and with proper expression. It is most often measured by administering individually timed tests in which the student is asked to either read out loud through a list of words or continuous text. Some reasons for dysfluency may include lack of automatic decoding skills and weak phoneme awareness.

 

 

References

 

Allington,R.L. (2001). What Really Matters for Struggling Readers; Designing Research-Based Programs.New York: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc.

 

Caldwell, J.S. & Leslie, L. (2005). Intervention Strategies To Follow, Informal Reading Inventory Assessment: So what do I do now?Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

 

Cheney, M. & Norris, J. ( 2003). Readers' Theater, Grade 1. California: Evan-Moor Educational Publishers.

 

Hudson, R.F., Lane, H.B., & Pullen, P.C. (2005).Reading fluency assessment and instruction: What, why, and how? The Reading Teacher. 58, No.8.

 

International Reading Association Meeting Pre-Institue on Fluency (2003). Retrieved February 25, 2007, from http://www.coe.usu.edu/ecc/images/pdf/presentations/irafluency.pdf

 

Kelley, M. & Clausen-Grace, .(2006). The Sustained Silent Reading Makeover That Transformed Readers. Reading Teacher.

 

Morris,D.(2005). The Howard Street Tutoring Manual, Teaching At-Risk Readers in the Primary Grades. New York: Guilford Press.

 

Rasinski, T. V. (2003). The Fluent Reader: Oral reading strategies for word building,recognition, fluency, and comprehension. New York: Scholastic Professional Books.

 

Rasinski,T.(2006) Reading fluency instruction: Moving beyond accuracy, automaticity, and prosody. The Reading Teacher. Vol. 59, No. 7.

 

Reading Fluency: Tasks, Texts and Teaching. Retrieved February 25, 2007, from http://www.coe.usu.edu/ecc/images/pdf/presentations/fluency_presentation.pdf

 

Samuels, S. J. & Farstrup, A. E. (Eds.). (2006). What research has to say about fluency instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

 

Topping, K.J. (2006) Building reading fluency:Cognitive, behavorial, and socioemotional factors and the role of peer-mediated learning. In Samuels, S.J.& Farstrup,A.E. (Eds.), What research has to say about fluency instruction (pp.106-129). Newark, DE:International Reading Association.

 

Wolf, M. (2007)Common Questions about Fluency New York, NY: Scholastic

 

 

 

External Links

 

http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/reading_first1fluency.html

This website discusses findings in fluency.

 

http://www.busyteacherscafe.com/units/fluency.htm

This site discusses fluency instruction and gives strategies and resources.

 

http://www.readingrockets.org/helping/target/fluency

This website gives examples of problem signs of fluency, how to help, and more links for information on fluency.

 

http://www.starfall.com/

This website contains several interactive stories to read online. This would be a great center to help develop fluency.

 

http://www.ops.org/reading/fluencystrategies.htm

This website suggests several fluency strategies.

 

 

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Transitional Stage

 

Fluency comprises three key elements: accurate reading

of connected text at a conversational rate with appropriate

prosidy or expression. A fluent reader can maintain this

performance for long periods of time. A fluent reader is

also not easily distracted and reads in an effortless,

flowing manner.

Excerpt from: Reading fluency assessment and instruction:What, why, and how?

 

Reference

 

Hudson, R., Lane, H., & Pullen, P. (2005). Reading fluency assessment and instruction:What, why, and how?The Reading Teacher. 58(8), pp.702-715.

 

 

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Commentary by Cynthia Boles

I thought your wiki page was very well written. You might consider "fleshing out" the section entitled: Grade Level Fluency Expectations; it seems more like bullets than paragraph form.

 

The only other thing I noticed was that your references did not follow APA format for journals. For example, Hudson, R.F., Lane, H.B., & Pullen, P.C. (2005).Reading fluency assessment and instruction: What, why, and how? The Reading Teacher. 58, No.8. __should read__, Hudson, R.F., Lane, H.B., & Pullen, P.C. (2005). Reading fluency assessment and instruction: What, why, and how? The Reading Teacher. 58(8), pages.

 

Overall, good job ladies!

 

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Commentary by Deborah Louie

 

I found your page very well organized and easy to read. The descriptions you gave coincided exactly with what I have been studying. I did find myself wondering more about the link to fluency and comprehension. I think more information related to this link (such as research related to whether or not there is a link) would have been an excellent way to enhance your subject matter. A great job nevertheless!!